Importance of philosophy:
Philosophy originated from the Greek words of love and wisdom. It is the study used for the pursuit of wisdom with the instruments of reason and logic. Philosophy is the mother of all academic subjects. Philosophy of a man is the inspiration of his every action.
The philosophical treasure of the Greeks has influenced all of western political thought.
The earth on which the tree of philosophers grew:
Sovereign Greece was economically self-sufficient and was developed in all aspects of life like education, religion and culture. Athens was a hustling port filled with people from various races and far away regions. Hence it naturally became a hotspot for debates, discussion and discourses on ideologies, beliefs and systems of the world. There was a war in 490-470 BCE fought by Sparta and Athens against Persians who wanted to colonize Greece. It was fought under Darius and Xerxes. Sparta provided the army and Athens provided the Navy. After the war Sparta demobilized the troops but Athens used this naval force for trade and navigation. Thus, while Sparta was suffering from war losses, Athens became a busy mercantile port. If the stomach is full only then are people able to contribute to the world by establishing philosophical, intellectual and spiritual doctrines or theories. Socrates was born and brought up in Athens and so did not have to travel much to fulfill his intellectual requirements and calling. Revered sophists Plato and Aristotle hail from this reputed region. When Philosophy began, it questioned the world outside but as it matured we see the gaze of the sophist turning inward- questioning his thinking and pondering upon his own nature.
Socrates:
For him, life without discourse was hollow. He was not a family man as he was not a good husband or a father. His focus was on thinking and discussing than on bringing bread for his family. He was loved because of his modesty. He once said “One thing only I know and that is that I know nothing”. (Page 6, The Story Of Philosophy by Will Durant) Mark that ‘only Socrates‘ knows this truth. He does not say that this is the only thing he knows. I think this is the most important belief which he wanted people to learn from him. This would mean – unlearning. The process of unlearning of the people would make the job of philosophers easy.
Field of study:
Philosophers before Socrates studied the tangible world. However, the study of the mind of man was more important for Socrates. Plato imbibed this teaching. Plato did attach a lot of importance to Geometry, Math and other physical sciences, but these for him were only instruments to find out the laws of the universe. The laws of nature have always been, are and will always be the same in any given circumstance. Change in the universe is brought about only by God and for him “God always geometrizes“.( The Story Of Philosophy – Will Durant )
Method:
Socrates believed that knowledge is there in a man but it needs to be uncovered. The method he used to uncover this knowledge was posing people with psychological, moral and philosophical questions and sub questions. He would prove their stand wrong until the person who is answering reaches a full proof answer. This is how he studied the mind of a man. Of course it was very frustrating for the target. However, Plato enjoyed this game of ‘dialectic’.
Religious faith:
He believed that there is only one ultimate supreme divinity and the immortality of the soul. However, he knew that this belief was too uncertain to be the basis of a moral code for the society.
Political views:
In the democracy which Socrates saw around himself, the government was in chaos. The politicians were voted on the basis of their oratory, who, Socrates said “go ringing on in harangues, like brazen pots which, when struck, continue to sound till a hand is put on them”. (The Story Of Philosophy). It is universally noticed that crowds can become more violent, foolish and cruel compared to humans alone. He wanted the state to be managed by the finest statesmen and skilled administrators.
Death:
People thought that he was against democracy and in favour of aristocracy. His views on religion were revolutionary at that time. So the people unintelligibly decided his destiny. He became the first martyr of Philosophy.
It is from the life of Socrates that Plato gets his ‘allegory of the cave ‘. For a man to be knowledgeable he has to go through pain and suffering because knowledge lies in the unexplored area outside his comfort zone. Going through the pain is necessary to obtain knowledge. Going through the pain is necessary to be free. The knowledgeable man (philosopher) must affirm his duty of showing light to the ones in darkness. The ones in darkness might laugh or get very agitated to hear him say something outside their belief system/s. They might even get so angry that they can kill him. Come what may, the philosopher must never be afraid of enlightening them. Because Socrates told his friends while dying, “...Say that you are burying my body alone “.( The Story Of Philosophy , by Will Durant ).
Plato:
“Plato is philosophy, and philosophy, Plato” – Emerson (http://www.emersoncentral.com/plato1.htm)
Plato’s Ideal state:
I) Plato before the Republic:
As the government was suspicious that Plato made an effort to save Socrates, he fled Athens in 399 BC. He gained wisdom by travelling for 10 years.
He went to Egypt where he saw that a priestly class ruled the rest of the population which were agriculturalists. He also went to Sicily and Italy. He happened to encounter a sect formed by Pythagoras. This was a scholarly group of people living a simple life in spite of possessing all the powers of rulers.
As he had seen these radical ways of life with his own eyes, he painted the ideal state the way he did and never thought that it was impossible.
‘The Republic’ gives reasons for all claims. Every idea of ‘The Republic’ is adventurous, intrepid , inventive and exciting.
“Burn the library because the value is in this book “- Emerson awards these words of Omar for the Koran to The Republic. (Page 15, the Story of Philosophy by Will Durant)
II) Views of Plato (in the Republic) and his Ideal State:
A. Political views:
Problems in politics:
Men are greedy, ambitious, jealous and grabbers.
All cities include the poor and the rich and the weak and the strong. They all should not be ruled in the same way.
Any form of government can become corrupt if that form is in excess. Anything excess is poison. Aristocracy will too narrowly concentrate power, democracy will turn into mobocracy and the mindless subjects will follow the winds.
Politicians are unskilled.
Solutions:
Plato gave solutions to these problems. If we go to a physician to cure our sickness we must go to an expert administrator to govern our state. This was Plato’s simple argument.
1. Citizenship
a) Citizens are not foreigners, children, slaves and old people but they are those who can participate in the judicial and deliberative processes of the state. Owning property is not a requirement to be a citizen.
b ) Relationship between the citizens and the state:
Whatever is good for citizens is good for the state. An internal conflict among citizens will negatively affect the state. Any problem of citizens is a state’s problem and vice-versa. Thus the solution of one is the solution of the other. Thus, morality is applied to both of them.
A citizen must develop himself well to answer his calling in the best way. The state must provide complete and equal opportunities for growth, development and working of its citizens.
Evaluation:
This thinking is reflected even at present. It is very unfortunate that many governments all over the world cannot provide proper, equal and fair educational and employment opportunities. We are yet far away from the ideal state. We are yet far away from the ideal state.
2. Political arrangement:
The state must provide a good life for its citizens and statesmen must be knowledgeable (virtuous). Government should function on exact knowledge. Democracy should not allow public officials to be selected on the basis of votes or on the basis of monetary or political influence, but on the basis of skills and proved eligibility to rule. He should first also have an experience of working in a lower office. There should be an educational election to a ‘public office’. He suggested this democracy of the schools instead of the democracy of the polls. The guardians will only do their duty as public officials and nothing else. Strict and rough training and testing of mind, body and heart will give the cream of the society. Interdependence between the rulers and the ruled creates respect for each other on both sides.
3. Omission of law and influence of public opinion:
A physician knows the treatment and the patient cannot advise him. The Philosopher King is the authority and not the law. Law would chain his hands and the public is not wise to have an opinion. Knowledge is superior to opinion as knowledge belongs to nature while opinion belongs to winds of change.
4. Form of government :
Thus, Plato advises wise Aristocracy aimed at peoples welfare by the Philosopher King in his ideal state.
Analysis:
Plato completely devalued the Athenian belief on democracy and that ‘governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed’. This belief is essential to feel free and dignified.
However, the Indian masses must learn that opinions of politicians should be based on their merit as administrators and not as orators.
5. Justice:
The Sophist Callicles say that justice is sought by the weak to make up for the strength of the strong. According to such thinkers justice is praised only by cowards.
To solve this dilemma, Pato gives the prelude that the qualities of citizens are the reflection of the qualities of the state and vice –versa. So, to solve problems at a personal level, there should be a restructuring of the state at a political and socio-economic level.
This goes well with the feminist’s insistence of accepting that ‘personal is political’.
Plato said , “ Justice is harmony “ and “Justice is doing one’s own job“
(.http://www.ohadmaiman.com/displayessay.asp?PageNumber=21)
As men are divided into gold, silver and bronze, the division of labour should be on the basis of aptitude and not on that of sex or family background. Proper interrelation between the workers, traders and the statesmen is justice. Justice gives a man and the society its due. Thus, justice means proper division of labour, specialization of task and ‘giving to every man his due’. When justice prevails, men do the work they are best suited to and society gets the best in all works i.e. ensuring due to the man and from the man because full advantage to the state means full advantage to its people.
Thus, the goal of the Philosopher King is to bring the demand and availability of jobs at equilibrium.
B. Social views and arrangement
1. Social stratification:
Everyone in the society is guaranteed freedom not as much for the execution of his free will as much for the liberty to respond to his calling.
The society originated to meet reciprocal needs.
Desire, emotion and knowledge are in all but in various degrees.
Desire, impulse, instinct and appetite have its seat in the loins. It is the provider of energy. People who have a lot of desire are materialistic and acquisitive. They are traders and workers.
Emotion, spirit, ambition, execution and courage have their seat in the heart. Emotion comes from memory of an experience and stimulates desire. Those who have this faculty on a pedestal are men of courage, valour and pride. They are best suited for defense. They are warriors.
Knowledge, thought, rationality, intellect and reason have its location inside the head. They can guide the desire of a man. Those who contain wisdom are not used by the world as much as it should. Plato wants to make these philosophers rulers.
Pythagoras used to say, friends should have all things in common “. (The Story Of Philosophy by Will Durant). Plato wanted to make conditions to allow the guardians to be free of jealousy, greed or any other negative feeling.
Communism of wife and property was a safeguard against the greedy nature of man which Plato was aware of. In his Ideal State there would be love for everyone because everybody will be living in the brotherhood of man.
Thus, the guardians will respect the masses because they are dependent on them for the materials required to sustain their lives. On the other hand the masses will respect the guardians for their selfless sacrifice.
Evaluation:
Distinguishing people as golden, silver or iron souls is out rightly creating a hierarchy and is insensitive of him. On the other hand, it is also rational to say that all humans are equally capable but only have different aptitudes.
2.Women :
For Plato the only social stratification should be division of labour irrespective of sex. Women were never less capable than men in any aspect of life. In his Ideal State, the women enjoyed equality of opportunity and quality of education and jobs. Women (a productive force) secluded to homes is a loss to the state.
Analysis:
The policy of today’s Canada is same as the one outlined by Plato. This itself is a compliment to Plato. They have realized that the contribution of women to the market economy has proved to be much more profitable than the profit from oil in the past, present and future.
3. Marriage and family :
Every bride and groom must produce a health certificate. Marriages should be between the rich and the poor to reduce the economic gap among people. Marriage is not for the self but for the state.
Only the guardian classes do not marry and cannot have a family. For this class, everybody is a brother and a sister. So, they are supposed to develop love and warmth for all.
However, the state must ensure the mating of the best man and woman and decide a month for this temporary marriage.
Evaluation:
He must have been the most modern of the people living around him. Even today, production of a health certificate should be made compulsory. This is not a reality even after the dangers of the spread of venereal diseases. Also, even in this so-called modern era there is heavy importance given to caste , religion and most importantly class while selecting a partner.
He must have been inspired by the animals and so he gave so much importance to the selection of the fittest for marriage.
4. Education:
The state can be rescued only by the application of trained minds. Nothing can go wrong if perfect socialization or education (sanskars) is given to students. Education should be conducted by the state and should not commercialize it. The ruler should mould the behavior of humans for the making of a harmonious state. In fact, the state is primarily an educational establishment. He calls it ‘the one great thing ‘. Educational institutions are compulsory if virtue or knowledge has to be taught.
‘Catch them young‘ was his motto. Education must be impartial irrespective of class and sex. He had developed a very intricate and elaborate system of education to train and test the future Philosopher Kings. So much so, that people thought that education was the main theme of the Republic.
Music conditioned the mind directly while gymnastics did it indirectly. The syllabus of higher education included mathematics, astronomy and logic so that the students realize the idea of good through exact precision. Political science is as exact as Mathematics.
Analysis:
He has a functionalist perspective of education. There are many who believe that education makes the students submissive and thus prevents overall development of their personalities. However, the system of overall education devised by Plato seems capable enough to provide all round development to children. He went against the ‘democratic’ norm of letting the fathers decide the education of the child and of not allowing women to be educated. There is no discussion about the education of artisans and their inclusion in elementary education. The content came from the training given to Athenians with the state – controlled education policy of Sparta.
5. Slavery :
There is no explicit opinion about this in the Republic. So it can be assumed that he maintains slavery in the ideal society because he never justifies any opinion of himself in this regard. Slaves are mentioned only once when he explains that justice means that each does his own work and no one meddles in another’s function.
Evaluation of Plato:
First of all, Plato always thought that his ideas are conceivable because he saw them manifest in front of his own eyes. Thus, he never agreed that he was utopian. However, he realized that his first ideal state cannot be implemented in his time and space and so he has kept it as a reference point for future generations.
It is very ironic that Plato was so open minded, creative, liberal, foresighted and modern in his age. Because, not only did he have truly revolutionary ideas but he also brought them out in public. He also established the Academy. All of this, even after seeing Socrates die in front of him.
Plato’s allegory of the cave:
Few slaves are tied up in a cave for a long time in such a way that they cannot move their necks. Behind them is a fire at a height. In front of the fire, there is a walkway. There is a wall at the edge of the walkway. The people carry boards cut into living and non living objects. The slaves can see shadows. They think that the noises come from the shadows and that the shadows are real. They honour the slave who can predict what might happen next. A person releases one of the slaves. The slave gets angry. He is too used to his position and is against change. When he is released he sees the reality behind him. He has to be dragged out of the cave. The slave is blinded by the sunlight. He looks at other objects and sees colour. He gets accustomed to reality and sees ‘light’. When he goes back into the cave to explain to his friends he is ridiculed and made fun of. The other slaves get very angry and agitated to see someone going against their ideas. Plato says, even if the others might kill him, the one who is enlightened, at all costs, must go to free others from darkness or ignorance.
His allegory of the cave shows the pitiable condition of enlightened Socrates doing his duty selflessly. He could afford to sacrifice his life for the cause of enlightening the world with his wisdom.
It is a shame that the Academy did not satisfy the purpose of its foundation. However, it is more unfortunate to see that even today politicians are shrewd players like in the days of Socrates. In fact, many politicians of present India are not even well educated.
The making of the Philosopher King is similar to the mandarin system of the Chinese and the process of examination by the UPSC to select public officials. If it is possible for officials then it is also possible for politicians.
If Nalanda University is remade then even the Academy can be reconstructed. This, I am sure would be the most important contribution of politicians towards public welfare. Alas, they may not be so interested to mix skill, merit, wisdom and eligibility with politics the way they are agile in mixing religion, caste, class and sex with politics. If not India, an effort must be made by Europe.
The average age of the Indian population by 2020 was 29. Today, 46.9% of India's population is under the age of 25. The Government of India has no plans for this growing young population. Which, if recognized and used, is the biggest asset of our nation. The Academy would what to do with this population.
Even in International Relations we study that the population is an element of power of a state and quality is as much important as the quantity. Plato knew that the quality of a state = quality of its people.
Aristotle:
Views of Aristotle and his ideal state:
His aim was to find an arrangement which is best applicable, possible and easily attainable. It is quite possible that he wanted to learn from the shortcoming of Plato, which was the extreme difficulty to implement his plan but also his good intentions of trying to find the best arrangement to make the best state.
A. Political views:
Aristotle studied the failed political arrangements to keep in mind their shortcomings .He also studied the successful ones to incorporate their ideals. The ideal states proposed by thinkers are also kept in mind. For Aristotle, unless the knowledge of this study cannot be implemented, political science is of no use.
Man is by nature is the most political of all animals. Thus, man has formed political partnerships to cause noble actions. The pursuit of virtue is the prime element of the state among the pursuits for wealth, security and safety.
Every naturally existing thing has a purpose. This final end is called ‘telos’.The telos of man is to live a happy life possible only by virtue. He should use all of his human capabilities to do good for the sake of it. Doing good is natural. The telos of the state is to provide an environment conducive for the citizens to live out their telos. The prime duty of a political community is to provide moral education to its citizens so that they reach their best capacity. The goal of politics is always the best of all the goals that can be. The best city is the one which successfully and properly creates virtuous citizens.
Aristotle believes that our actions shape our character. The aim of every lawgiver is to inculcate good habits in citizens. If this aim is not reached, the lawgiver is a failure and the constitution is a bad one.
An excellent city is the one in which its citizens are excellent. In this city the individual and the city fulfill their telos. Aristotle very well understands that a city is naturally formed for the well being of its people.
The pursuit of virtue rather than the pursuit of wealth or security or safety or military strength that is the most important element of a city:
“The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together”. (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/)
He makes a clear distinction between ethics and politics but admits that they are closely linked because, in Nicomachean Ethics, he says, that human nature is happy and virtuous and in Politics, he says that it is the duty of the statesmen to help the citizens live a virtuous life.
If the citizens wish to be happy and virtuous, they must enthusiastically participate in politics. This view is supported and relevant even today. Without the active participation of citizens, democracy becomes meaningless. In fact, such citizens deserve democracy the least.
Poison is at the extremes and the mean between two extremes is virtue. Too much of any form of government is dangerous for the government itself and leads to tyranny.
Evaluation of Aristotle:
Today everyone has different opinions and so used to celebrate variety that they are agitated to see the state interfering to mend their belief systems. In democracies like India and the western countries, people give this responsibility to religion, family and NGO’S. Who does not want to see everybody being virtuous? However, the government would have to be much stricter and take on much more powers to ensure that everybody is virtuous and excellent. Maybe it could have been possible in Aristotle’s times.
1. Relationship between the citizens and the state and Citizenship:
The city always comes before the citizens. In fact the citizen does not belong even to himself. He only belongs to the city because he is a part of the city.
Citizens have a right to attend political assemblies and be a part of the jury. The citizens should actively participate in administration of justice and legislation. Citizens are not merchants, labourers and slaves because they need leisure for political activities.
2. Political arrangement:
Ethics should never be mixed with politics. The kind of socio-economic life of the people of the state determines whether monarchy, democracy or oligarchy will be best for those. However, the rule of law is essential in any good political arrangement as it removes the threat of misuse of power. In a predominantly agricultural unit, democracy will be favorable because farmers will not be too free to interfere in politics and thus the rule of law would prevail.
3. Laws :
“Law is natural and not a negative of offences but a positive counsel for moral protection”. – Aristotle.
Aristotle paid due respect to laws because only they were unchangeable, unlike the unpredictable human nature. The laws should never be changed all the time without enough reason but only for the well-being of the state.
4. Forms of government:
The rulers must know both the extremes and always stay in the middle. Democracy is much more stable than oligarchy because it can contain conflict between the rich and poor only. However, in an oligarchy, the conflict between the ruling groups also gets added. The moderation of a regime is proportional to its longevity.
Polity, a combination of democracy and oligarchy, is the best. The interest of the rich and the poor is protected by laws. A successful polity is the one which can be referred to as a democracy and also as an oligarchy.
The forms of governments, laws, legislature and the judiciary and the constitution should be according to the economic structure of the state.
Evaluation:
Crafting a polity is not easy. Aristotle does not even refer to any that might have existed in the past. However, he admits that a single form of government is not the best for all. All cities have their own individual needs. Thus, he is very flexible and accommodative.
5. Justice:
Aristotle said, “Political good is justice and this is the common advantage “. ‘Nicomachean Ethics and Politics‘ was Aristotle’s book which gave the world his theory of justice. He says, justice is the same as equality. He provides for equitable, distributive and corrective justice. The Doctrine of the mean says that justice lies in the middle of two vices. Between an unjust act and the suffering from that act lies justice.
B. Social views and arrangement
The 2 first partnerships were between husband and wife and between a man and a slave. These were formed naturally for reproduction and preservation respectively. These, along with the children from the household and the family.
Women and slaves have no business with politics and should be prohibited from studying it.
1. Social stratification:
Aristotle says, “The slave is wholly lacking the deliberative element; the female has it but it lacks authority; the child has it but it is incomplete”. (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/)
2. Status of women :
A female has reasoning power but does not have power over men. A man is superior to a woman and so should rule her by nature. The rule of a man on his wife should be political which means that the ruler and the ruled must exchange positions. Both should acknowledge their equality. However, the husband is always the boss when household decisions have to be made.
Women have no role in politics because they are denied access to it and have no experience. They should look after the household instead. This is the telos of a wife.
Women and children must strive to be excellent, follow the laws and must have faith in the ruler’s principles which justify the type of political system they are living in; because it is beneficial to the city.
Evaluation:
The reasons might be that they are sympathetic towards others and not aggressive (evolution is the reason for this), the status of women in Greece at that time was low and some say that women rely more on emotions than on reason.
Aristotle does not say anything about women’s education. He believes that by nature women are to be ruled by men and human laws, norms, and culture cannot change that.
3. Marriage:
37 and 18 are the appropriate ages for men and women to get married respectively so that the offspring are the best quality
4. Family:
A pregnant woman must follow a healthy routine with good nutrition and exercise. Abortion can be resorted to if there is a threat of overexpansion of the population.
The elders and the males are fit to lead, direct and control the family compared to the young ones and the females.
5. Education:
Education must start before birth. The responsibility of education should not be left upon the fathers but on the state. Education must be common and should develop the mind and the body of students. Moral education is fundamental. Spartans focused on giving all its children military training so it could win battles but stagnated in peace time because the citizens were not equipped to conduct life in peacetime. The telos of education is to empower the students with knowledge which is practical and that of citizenship so that that they can be meaningful citizens and respond to their individual callings. Learning skills that are productive like making shoes will be degrading to the citizens and learning theory would be very difficult for most of them.
For Aristotle, theoretical knowledge was useless unless put to action. Thus, he puts a restriction on the age of a student of politics. One who has no experience in politics or is young is not fit to study politics. Using practical knowledge requires reason. Young humans use more of their emotional faculty than reason. Thus, they are not equipped to study politics.
Thus, politics should be studied only by the ones who are experienced and who have a mature reasoning capability. Only for these small numbers, will the study of politics be useful. Athens was the most democratic city of Greece yet citizenship was limited only to adult men whose parents include an Athenian citizen. These amounted to 15 % of the population. Aristotle wanted this to be decreased as much as possible.
Conclusion:
For Plato, education was a way to find the philosopher kings and find out the aptitudes of the students. He also gives the state the responsibility to be the parent of the children. Aristotle looks at education to teach children to exercise citizenship. This is the main function and role of education. So achievable was his target.
6. Slavery:
Of course, the institution of slavery is just. The first partnership among people was between those who cannot preserve themselves without being dependent upon each other. Slaves are the prisoners of war. Since they have lost, they are inferior and so can be used to serve the victorious. Even the children of slaves are slaves because they have inferior genes. Slaves do not exercise reason, they can only see it. These are people who need to be told what to do and cannot take decisions by themselves. Thus, they should do what they best can – obey. Slaves should not be included as a part of the city but as possessions of the city because they are ‘living tools’. Thus slavery is natural because the master cannot survive without the service of the slave while the slave cannot survive without the protection and livelihood given by his master. The master wants leisure and the slave wants guidance and instructions on which they rely to live in a city not their own.
Slavery was fundamental as it gave the philosophers leisure to think, the artist to paint, sculpture to sculpt and statesmen to govern and thus contribute to the society. Their economy was wholly dependent on slavery.
Evaluation:
It is impossible to judge the ability of a person to reason just by looking at them. It is wrong to say that all the prisoners of war are unable to reason, not virtuous and that children of slaves deserve to be slaves. Aristotle, although not rigid as Plato in his political ideology has made his social structure too rigid for social mobility
C. Economic views and arrangement:
All the productive work is carried out within the household (not in factories / mills /offices or other specialized places).
Household is called ‘oikos’ in Greek. ‘Oikos’ is the root word of economics. One had to become an expert on skills and knowledge of household management. The family and the city are dependent on it for daily supplies. The science of household management is natural to man because household is natural. Slaves are specialized in this task.
Wealth is necessary for household maintenance and developing the self. Important values like generosity can be developed on account of substantial wealth.
However, business expertise is unnatural because it is fuelled by materialistic greed and leads to unnatural accumulation of wealth. Possession of wealth for the sake of it is not virtuous. Lending money for the sake of interest is unnatural and objectionable. A virtuous man has to stoop down if he has to focus on money making. The example of Thales, a philosopher who became very rich by selling his knowledge and skill of astronomy illustrates that it is very easy for a philosopher to make money. However, they should direct their energies in other ways of bettering humanity.
The rich and the poor always will for their selfish interests and not for the whole city. They do not seek equality but power. This leads to a war or a revolution.
To prevent the revolution, it should be ensured that the class which wants the regime should be superior (quality /quantity) than the class which wants to overthrow it. Any political unit with the highest number of middle class is extremely fortunate because the middle class does not mind to be ruled, does not always try to play a part in politics by corrupting the politicians and demand to rule, like the upper class and also does not suffer from jealousy and the tendency to avoid rule, like the lower class. If the population of the middle class is the highest, there is hope for polity to exist successfully for a long period of time.
Other features:
1. Ideal city:
The geographical location, size of the city and the topography of the city is very important.
The right size of the city is moderate so that it is self –sufficient and also easily administered.
The expanse and topography of the city must provide its citizens leisure and liberty but in moderation. It should be easy to survey and defend the city on land and in sea. But it should be arduous for the hostile armies to enter but enjoyable for the citizens
The city should have moderate access to the sea. It should have a port far from the city so that regulation on the interactions between citizens and foreigners can easily be established.
The population must be limited or else it will be difficult to gauge everybody's aptitude, assign them jobs and give them justice.
The Europeans living in cold climates are hard working while the Asians living in warm climates (where there is abundant food) are gifted with aptitude for art and thinking. Uncomfortable environment or harsh climate makes a man hardworking and resistant to succumb to rule while too much comfort can make him lethargic. The Greeks lie in between, they are gifted with thought, art, resilience, freedom and also the ability to rule themselves well.
Evaluation:
Aristotle was so focused on creating the best applicable city that it seems that he actually borrowed the opinions of the society around him in some areas like status of women, slavery, and citizenship. The reason for this might be that he thought that he would have to face his end much more brutally than Socrates and Plato after Alexander’s death. This is also why he left the city. He was not ready to give the people a chance to sin for the third time.
Anyway, he is so focused on the mean that there is nothing exceptional in his philosophy.
He did not have any modern perspective of trade, international relations and taxation. He also did not see the ill effect of capitalism.
However, credit must be given to his detailed research, study and classification of the governments, constitution, justice and his precious contribution to the field of Political Science. This is why no one else is called the father of Political Science.
Similarities between Plato and Aristotle:
Both were on the same lines with respect to the content of education and the relationship between the state and the citizen and also that radical democracy is more than a dangerous experiment. They both wanted to develop the mind and body so their syllabus included military training, gymnastics, music, logic and exact sciences like mathematics. The Indian public should realize this as soon as possible. They both agree on division of labour based on aptitude and skills. Both have a very rigid definition of citizenship which would be unacceptable in modern times.
Differences between Plato and Aristotle:
Aristotle prepared his theory as a response and a reaction to Plato’s theory. He vehemently opposed the way Plato called the physical form of ideas imperfect. For Aristotle, forms cannot exist except in the physical form. Thus the only difference in their syllabus was that Aristotle’s focus was on Biology, Physics, Chemistry and other sciences dealing with nature. While the focus of Plato was on sciences which can be studied without the use of senses like logic, and Mathematics, Plato aimed at creating an original ideal state as a painting while Aristotle analyzed the constitutional features of all worlds to prepare his best state. Just the way the Indian constitution was prepared, Aristotle was not as rigid as Plato to believe that the souls are either golden , silver or iron and remain so throughout their life . Thus, he was not as hierarchical as Plato. For Aristotle, the essence of love would be lost in Plato’s ideal state.
Conclusion:
The father of the idea of creation of an ideal state was Plato. Aristotle also creates a perfect state but one which is easily applicable. The philosophies of these great philosophers are of prime importance to the study of political science. They are cherished by the students of political science and are a feast to the mind of any thinking individual.
If they at the time and position in history could develop such fine material it is obviously possible for us to create a best state for ourselves as a reference point at least. The hope of the best state has always remained ever since.
Bibliography:
Websites:
http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/#SH9c
https://philosophynow.org/issues/77/Plato_And_Aristotle_In_The_Underworld
http://www.emersoncentral.com/plato1.htm
Books:
A history of Political Theory by George H Sabine and Thomas L Thorson
The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant.
hi asmi
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